By Akwete Lex Adjei
My colleague, Akwete Lex Adjei, presented an informative and engaging presentation on Black History Month – Colonization & Decolonization of Africa (attached). Here is the narrative:
From the ancient empires that dotted the vast African landscape to the turbulent struggle for independence, the story of Africa is one of resilience, resistance, and an unwavering spirit. As we commemorate Black History Month, it is imperative to delve into the rich tapestry of African history, unraveling the threads that led to the decolonization of a continent long exploited by colonial powers.
Ancient Empires and Medieval Marvels
Africa’s illustrious past is woven with the golden threads of great empires that rose and fell, shaping the region’s cultural, economic, and political landscape. The Ghana Empire (830-1235), founded by the Mole-Dagbon people who migrated from Lake Chad to present-day Ghana, was the earliest centralized political kingdom in West Africa, flourishing through trade routes and Islamic influence. Its main commercial centers were the capitals of Niani, Timbuktu, and Gao.
The Mali Empire (1226-1670), under the legendary ruler Mansa Musa, established a vast Islamic state renowned for its wealth, justice, and diplomatic relationships. Musa, the 9th Mansa (emperor) of the empire, divided his realm into 14 provinces ruled by governors or emirs who paid tribute in gold, horses, and clothes. He instituted an honor system for provincial administrators, encouraging devoted service, and ruled impartially with justice, installing judges, scribes, and civil servants.
Musa also established diplomatic relationships with other African states, sent students to Morocco for studies, and founded the city of Timbuktu in what is now Mali, transforming it into a center of learning in the region.
The Songhai Empire (1443–1538), led by Askia Muhammad I, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr al-Turi, continued Mansa Musa’s legacy by establishing the prestigious Sankore University in Timbuktu, attracting students from across sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab world. This period marked the beginnings of leadership in medieval West Africa, as the Songhai Empire rose to prominence just as Portugal and Spain embarked on their exploration and conquest of the Western Hemisphere.
Medieval West Africa also witnessed the rise of smaller political states along the west coast, such as the Gonja, Gurs, Bono, Bambara, and Dahomey. The Gurs, for instance, lived in decentralized societies in the upper regions of the Windward Coast (present-day Sierra Leone and Liberia), holding common political and religious beliefs, as well as a shared system of land ownership, with political power residing in associations of men and women.
The Asante (Ashanti) Empire (16th – 17th Century), constituted below the Volta with contemporary nations like Cote d’Ivoire, Togo, and Ghana, boasted a highly evolved political system with a constitution and assembly. Commercially dominating the region straddling the African trade routes that carried ivory, gold, and grain (known as the Ivory Coast, Grain Coast, and Gold Coast), the Asante Empire played a significant role in fueling the transatlantic slave trade, with slaves from these regions predominantly shipped to British North American mainland colonies.
The Scramble for Africa and the Dawn of Colonization
The “Scramble for Africa” between 1870 and 1914 saw European powers racing to secure as much of the continent as possible, partitioning Africa without regard for its existing political and social structures. The Berlin Agreement of 1885 formalized this colonial conquest, with Britain, France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal carving up the continent for their own gains, driven by the desire to control Africa’s vast natural resources.
This period of imperialism ended with almost all of Africa under the control of colonial powers as colonies or protectorates. All pre-colonial states, with few exceptions like Liberia, which gained independence in the early 19th century through the efforts of former slaves, and Ethiopia, which managed to resist Italian colonization until 1936, lost their sovereignty.
The colonial powers imposed their own systems of governance, often disregarding the traditional leadership structures and cultural norms of the African people. Economic exploitation became rampant, as colonial administrations diverted the profits from Africa’s rich resources for their own benefit, stifling local capital accumulation and fostering dependency on the colonial powers.
The Winds of Change: Decolonization and Independence
The aftermath of World War II unleashed a wave of African nationalism, fueled by local leaders educated in the West, such as Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, Kwame Nkrumah of the Gold Coast (now Ghana), Julius Nyerere of Tanganyika (now Tanzania), Léopold Sédar Senghor of Senegal, Nnamdi Azikiwe of Nigeria, Patrice Lumumba of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Félix Houphouët-Boigny of Côte d’Ivoire. These leaders played pivotal roles in mobilizing their respective nations towards the goal of independence.
The 5th Pan-African Congress, held in October 1945, marked a significant milestone in the decolonization movement, as delegates from across the continent, including future presidents of Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi, demanded an end to colonialism, igniting the fire of independence across Africa.
The process of decolonization, which largely took place from the mid-1950s to 1975, was marred by violence, political turmoil, and organized revolts. The Mau Mau rebellion in British Kenya (1920 to 1963), the Algerian War in French Algeria (1954 to 1962), the Congo Crisis in the Belgian Congo (1960 to 1965), and the Angolan War of Independence in Portuguese Angola (1975-1991, 1992-1994, and 1998-2002) were among the most brutal conflicts, claiming hundreds of thousands of lives and displacing millions.
Other significant events included the Zanzibar Revolution in the Sultanate of Zanzibar in August 1964, which overthrew the Arab monarchy, and the Nigerian Civil War (July 6, 1967, to January 13, 1970), in which the secessionist state of Biafra fought for independence from Nigeria, resulting in a devastating conflict that claimed an estimated 500,000 to 800,000 lives and displaced over a million people.
By 1977, 50 African countries had gained independence, ushering in a new era of self-governance and the reclamation of African identity after decades, and in some cases, centuries, of colonial rule.
The Economic Legacy and Ongoing Challenges
The economic legacy of colonialism in Africa is complex and multifaceted. While colonial powers invested in infrastructure to integrate Africa into the global economy, this infrastructure was primarily designed to facilitate the extraction of raw materials and resources for the benefit of the colonizers. African economies were structured to serve the interests of the colonial powers, resulting in the diversion of profits and the stifling of local capital accumulation.
This economic exploitation created a lasting dependency on primary commodities, with many African nations becoming reliant on the export of goods such as copper in Zambia and tea in Kenya. Efforts to diversify and industrialize African economies have been hindered by this legacy, contributing to a slower pace of economic growth in some nations despite the end of colonial rule.
However, the literature examining the legacy of colonialism in Africa is mixed, and the economic impact varies from country to country. A meta- analysis of 18 African countries indicates that only one-third experienced increased economic growth post-independence, highlighting the complex and multifaceted nature of the challenges faced by African nations in the aftermath of decolonization.
Despite these challenges, Africa as a whole has made significant strides in economic development. As of 2023, the continent boasts a combined GDP of$3.1 trillion (nominal) and $8.86 trillion (PPP), with projections estimating the PPP figure to reach $29 trillion by 2050. Africa’s population stands at billion, with approximately 70% below the age of 45, representing a significant demographic dividend and a potential engine for economic growth in the coming decades.
The number of millionaires in Africa has also been on the rise, reaching an estimated 352,000 in 2022, reflecting the emergence of a growing middle class and increasing economic opportunities across the continent.
However, economic progress has been uneven, with challenges such as high inflation rates, public debt levels, and infrastructural deficits persisting in many African nations. As of 2023, Africa’s inflation rate is estimated at 15.5%, while government debt stands at 62.4% of GDP, highlighting the ongoing need for economic reforms, investment in human capital, and sustainable development strategies.
The journey of Africa, from the ancient empires to the struggles for decolonization, is a testament to the resilience and determination of its people. As we celebrate Black History Month, we honor the sacrifices made, the battles fought, and the enduring spirit that continues to shape Africa’s narrative – a narrative that transcends borders and resonates with the universal pursuit of freedom, dignity, and self-determination.
While challenges remain, the economic potential of Africa is vast, driven by a young and burgeoning population, abundant natural resources, and a growing entrepreneurial spirit. By addressing the lingering legacies of colonialism, fostering political stability, and embracing sustainable economic policies, African nations have the opportunity to write a new chapter in their history – one defined by economic prosperity, self-reliance, and a collective pursuit of a brighter future for all Africans.
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